Principles (2024)

Study Guide

Overview: what is ethics

• If we look in an old dictionary we find the following definition:

"the science of human duty; the body of rules of duty drawn from this science;a particular system of principles and rules concertning duty, whether trueor false; rules of practice in respect to a single class of human actions;as, political or social ethics; medical ethics É" and today computerethics. Ethics is the reasoning that we do in order to make decisions thatwill not violate our conscience. As the Greeks would say, "to keep one'ssoul pure".

• Computer ethics tries to clarify and provide solutions to the issues thatare raised by computers in areas such as privacy, personal property, damageto others' property, safety, and so forth. Computer ethics falls in thearea of normative ethics, that is the quest for the practical truthof how one's choices and actions will be good and worthwhile.

Various ethical theories

• Throughout history many ethical theories have developed. Each individualmust choose one, or a combination of them.
• The are two basic approaches to ethics:
• Teleological theories which consider the consequences of an actionas a measure of an action's good.
• Deontological theories which put the rightness of an action aboveits "goodness."
• Teleological: Utilitarianism, first advocated by Jeremy Benthamand John Stuart Mill
Utilitarianism claims that the good is that which provides the greatesthappiness for the greatest number. This theory advocated that one's actsshould maximize the amount of good and happiness for everyone affectedby the actions. One's decision should be based on the consequences thatcan be deduced before the action has taken place. Please note that utilitarianismstresses that one should think about everyone and not just the one(s) makingthe decision. As an example our decision to cut down forests should alsoinclude in the analysis how that will affect our grandchildren.
• Deontological:duty-based ethics -- developed by Immanuel Kant.
This theory stresses that fidelity to principle and duty are the mostimportant. The consequences of an action, according to Kant do not matter.What matters is that the act itself is right, that one does one's duty.One's actions should be ruled by the following imperative " I should neveract except in such a way that I can also will that my maxim should becomea universal law." That is, if one believes that everyone should act thisway and if everyone acting this does not logically lead to a contradiction,the action is valid. Spinello gives a good example: The rule, " It is permissiblefor everyone to break promises when it is in their best interest to doso," cannot be a valid ethical rule since it leads to a contradiction.That is, if everyone broke promises, the whole notion of promises wouldcollapse.

Another philosopher, W.D. Ross built upon Kant's theory and listed afew basic duties. One should:

1. Tell the truth.
2. Right the wrongs that one has done to others.
3. Act justly.
4. Help other in respect to virtue, intelligence, and happiness.
5. Improve oneself with respect to virtue and intelligence.
6. Give thanks.
7. Avoid injury to others.

According to Ross when two of these conflict one should act according tothe more stringent of the above.

This theory is based on upholding an individual's human or legal rights,such as the rights to privacy and ownership of property.

In the philosophical arena, rights are split up into positive and negativerights. Negative rights refer to freedom from outside interference in certainactivities which are defined by the social norm of the moment. Such rightsare freedom of speech, the right to liberty and privacy.

Positive rights "are those that give one what is needed to freely pursuehis or her interests. " Such rights are right to health care, educationand other similar things. Spinello notes that "In American society therehas been far more emphasis on negative rights then on positive rights"

Contractarianism is a rights-based approach to morality and ethics.According to this approach, morality is based on the social contact betweengovernment and its citizens. This contract provides certain inalienablerights such as life, liberty and property. Contractarianism stresses thata system must be fair and accord all its participants due respect.

Some steps for ethical analysis Spinello

1. Identify and formulate the basic issues in each case.
2. Consider your first impressions or reactions to these issues. In otherwords, what does your moral intuition say about the action or policy underconsideration. Is it right or wrong?
3. Are there any normative principles relevant? If so, what impact do theyhave on resolving the ethical problem(s)?
4. Consider the issues also from the viewpoint of one or more of the ethicaltheories and pose some of the questions raised above.
5. Do the normative principles and the ethiccal theories point to one decisionor course of action or do they bring you to the different conclusions?If so, which avenue of reasoning should take precedence?
6. What is the normative conclusion about the case, that is, what should bethe organizational or individuals course of action?
7. Finally what are the public policy implications of this case and your normativeconclusion? Should the recommended behavior be prescribed through legislationor regulations?